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A
dystopia (from the Greek δυσ- and τόπος, alternatively,
cacotopia,Cacotopia (κακό, caco = bad) was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 19th century works (, , )
kakotopia or
anti-utopia) is a fictional society that is the
antithesis of utopia. It is usually characterized by an oppression social control, such as an authoritarianism or
totalitarianism government. In other words, a Dystopia has the opposite of what one would expect in a Utopian society.
Some academic circles distinguish between
anti-utopia and
dystopia. As in
George Orwell Nineteen Eighty-Four,and
Yevgeny Zamyatin's "We (novel)", a dystopia does not pretend to be good, while an anti-utopia appears to be utopian or was intended to be so (e.g.
Aldous Huxley Brave New World or Andrew Ryan's Rapture in
BioShock), but a fatal flaw or other factor has destroyed or twisted the intended utopian world or concept.Random House's Word of the Day clarifies the technical differences between dystopia and anti-utopia.
Origin of the word
The first known use of the term dystopia appeared in a speech before the
British Parliament by Greg Webber and John Stuart Mill Exploring Dystopia, last accessed on 19th March 2006, see also in 1868. In that speech, Mill said, "It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable."
Oxford English Dictionary His knowledge of Greek language suggests that he was referring to a bad place, rather than simply the opposite of Utopia. The Greek prefix "dys" ("δυσ-") signifies "ill", "bad" or "abnormal"; Greek "topos" ("τόπος") meaning "place"; and Greek "ou-" ("ου") meaning "not". Thus,
Utopia means "nowhere", and is a pun on "Eutopia" meaning "happy place" - the prefix "eu" means "well," or "good."
Common traits of a dystopian society
The only trait common to all dystopias is that they are negative and undesirable societies, but many commonalities are found across dystopian societies.
In general, dystopias are seen as visions of "dangerous and alienating future societies," often criticizing current trends in culture.City Life - Future Cities: Utopia or Dystopia. (2007). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved January 30, 2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/oscar/article-234546
It is a culture where the condition of life is "extremely bad," as from deprivation, oppression, or terror.dystopia. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved
January 27,
2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dystopia
Counter-utopia
Many dystopias, found in fictional and artistic works, can be described as a utopian society with at least one
fatal flaw.Encyclopedia of Utopian Literature. Mary Ellen Snodgrass. p. xii Whereas a utopian society is founded on perfectionism and fullfilment, a dystopian society’s dreams of improvement are overshadowed by stimulating fears of the “ugly consequences of present-day behavior”.science fiction. (2007). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved February 1,
2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235726
Society
Most dystopias impose severe social restrictions on the characters' lives.
This can take the form of
social stratification, where social class is strictly defined and enforced, and social mobility is non-existent (see
caste). For example,the novel
Brave New World's class system is prenatally designated in terms of Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas, and Epsilons, who lack the very ability to advance.
Another, often related form of restriction lies in the requirement of strict conformity among citizens, with a general assumption that dissent and individuality are bad. In the novel
We (novel) by Yevgeny Zamyatin, people are permitted to live out of public view for only an hour a day. They are not only referred to by numbers instead of names, but are neither "citizens" nor "people", but "numbers." In the lower castes, in
Brave New World, single embryos are "bokanovskified", so that they produce between eight and ninety-six identical twins, making the citizens as uniform as possible.William Matter, "On
Brave New World" p 95, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Some dystopian works emphasize the pressure to conform in terms of the requirement to not excel. In these works, the society is ruthlessly egalitarian, in which ability and accomplishment, or even competence, are suppressed or stigmatized as forms of inequality, as in
Kurt Vonnegut's "
Harrison Bergeron". Similarly, in Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451, the dystopia represses the intellectuals with particular force, because most people are willing to accept it, and the resistance to it consists mostly of intellectuals.Jack Zipes, "Mass Degradation of Humanity" p 189, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
In a typical dystopia, there is a total absence of any social group besides the state, as in
We, or such social groups being subdivisions of the state, under government control, for example, the Junior Anti-Sex League in
Nineteen Eighty-Four.
Among social groups, independent religions are notable by their absence. In
Brave New World, the establishment of the state including lopping off the tops of all crosses (as symbols of Christianity) to make them "T"s, (as symbols of Henry Ford's Model T).William Matter, "On
Brave New World" p 94, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 The state may stage, instead, a
personality cult, with quasi-religious rituals about a central figure, usually a
head of state or an oligarchy of some sort, such as Big Brother in
1984, or the Well-Doer of
We. In explicitly theocratic dystopias, such as Margaret Atwood's
The Handmaid's Tale, the religion is the state, and is enforced with the same vigor as any secular dystopia's rule; it does not provide social bonds outside the state.
Even more than religion, family is attacked by dystopian societies. In some societies, it has been completely eradicated, but clearly at great effort, and continuing efforts are deployed to keep it down, as in
Brave New World, where children are reproduced artificially, where the concept of a "mother" or "father" is obscene. In others, the institution of the family exists but great efforts are deployed to keep it in service of the state, as in
1984, where children are organized to spy on their parents. In
We, the escape of a pregnant woman from the United State is a revolt; the hostility of the state to motherhood is a particularly common trait.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's
We" p 70, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
The dystopia often must contain human sexuality in order to prevent its disrupting society. The disruption often springs from the social bonds that sexual activity foments rather than sexual activity itself, as when
Ayn Rand's
Anthem (novella) features a hero and heroine whose revolt stems from a wish to form a human connection and express personal love.Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 4-5, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 Therefore, some dystopias are depicted as containing it through encouraging promiscuous sexuality and lack of ideals of romantic love, so that the characters do not impute importance to the activity.Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 5-6, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 In
Brave New World,
Lenina Crowne confesses to having sexual intercourse with only one man and is encouraged by her friend to be more promiscuous, and in
We, "numbers" (people) are allowed sexual intercourse with any other number by registering for access. Alternatively, antisexualism is also prevalent as a way of social control (the Junior Anti-Sex League in
1984), where the state controls so heavily the lives of its citizens that sexual activity is often an act of rebellion.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
The society frequently isolates the characters from all contact with the natural world. Dystopias are commonly urban,Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 4, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 and generally avoid nature, as when walks are regarded as dangerously
anti-social in
Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451.
Political
Dystopian politics are often characterized as one or several types of governments and political systems. These systems include, but are not limited to, bureaucracy,
capitalism, communism,
fascism, chaos, totalitarianism,
dictatorships and other forms of political, social and economical control.Moylan, Tom. “ ‘Look into the Dark’: On Dystopia and the Novum”. Learning from New Worlds. Ed. Patrick Parrinder, Durham: Duke University Press, 2001Kaplan, Carter. “The Advent of Literary Dystopia.” Extrapolation. 40.3 (1999): 200 – 212 These governments often assert great power over the citizens, dramatically depicted in
1984 as the authority to decree that 2+2 did not need to equal 4.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
In
When the Sleeper Wakes,
H. G. Wells depicted the governing class as hedonistic and shallow.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 153 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 George Orwell contrasted this to the world of
Jack London's
The Iron Heel, where the dystopian rulers are brutal and dedicated to the point of fanaticism, which he considered more plausible;William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 this is, indeed, more typical of dystopias in general.
Utopian politics are often considered as idealistic in practice towards the society in which they are dictated and enacted."Utopia." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 11 February 2007. Dystopian politics, however, are considered flawed in some way or have negative connotations amongst the inhabitants of the dystopian “world”. Dystopian politics are portrayed as
Oppression.
Dystopias are often filled with
pessimism views of the ruling class or government that is brutal or uncaring ruling with an “iron hand” or “iron fist.” These dystopian government establishments often have protagonists or groups that lead a “Resistance movement” to enact change within their government.Donawerth, Jane. “Genre Blending and the Critical Dystopia.” Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination. Ed. Raffaella Baccolini, Tom Moylan. New York:Routledge, 2003
Examples of dystopian politics in literary fiction can be read in
Parable of the Sower (novel), Nineteen Eighty-Four, and V for Vendetta. Dystopian politics are portrayed in films such as The Island (2005 film), Fahrenheit 451 (1966 film), Brazil (film) and THX 1138.
Economic
The economic structures of dystopian societies in literature and other media have many variations, as the economy often relates directly to the elements that the writer is depicting as the source of the oppression. However, there are several archetypes that such societies tend to follow.
A commonly occurring theme is that the state is in control of the economy, as shown in such works as
Ayn Rand's
Anthem and Henry Kuttner's short story "The Iron Standard". Some dystopias, such as
1984, feature black markets with goods that are dangerous and difficult to obtain, or the characters may be totally at the mercy of the state-controlled economy. Such systems usually have a lack of efficiency, as seen in stories like
Philip Jose Farmer's
Riders of the Purple Wage, featuring a bloated welfare system in which total freedom from responsibility has encouraged an underclass prone to any form of antisocial behavior.
Kurt Vonnegut's
Player Piano depicts a dystopia in which the centrally controlled economic system has indeed made material abundance plentiful, but deprived the mass of humanity of meaningful labor; virtually all work is menial and unsatisfying, and even most of the small group that achieves education is admitted to the elite.Howard P. Segal, "Vonnegut's
Player Piano: An Ambiguous Technological Dystopia" p 163, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Even in dystopias where the economic system is not the source of the society's badness, as in
Brave New World, the state often controls the economy. In
Brave New World, a character, reacting with horror to the suggestion of not being part of the social body, cites as a reason that everyone works for everyone else.William Matter, "On Brave New World" p 98, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Other works feature extensive privatization. In this context, big businesses often have far more control over the
populace than any kind of government, as can be seen in the novel
Jennifer Government. This is common in the genre of
cyberpunk, such
The Bladerunner and
Snow Crash, which often features corrupt and all-powerful corporations, often in the form of megacorps.
Characteristics of dystopian fiction
Dystopia is generally considered a subgenre of
science fiction.
The
Back story
Because a
fictional universe has to be constructed, a selectively-told back story of a war, revolution, uprising, critical
overpopulation, or other disaster is often introduced early in the narrative. This results in a shift in emphasis of control, from the good old days to corporations, totalitarian dictatorships or bureaucracies.
Because dystopian literature typically depicts events that take place in the future, it often features technology more advanced than that of contemporary society. Usually, the advanced technology is controlled exclusively by the group in power, while the oppressed population is limited to technology comparable to or more primitive than what we have today.
In order to emphasize the degeneration of society, the standard of living among the lower and middle classes is generally poorer than in contemporary society (in America or a European country, but far superior to any third world country). This is not always the case, however; in
Brave New World and
Equilibrium (2002 film), people enjoy much higher material living standards in exchange for the loss of other qualities in their lives, such as independent thought and emotional depth.
The Hero
Unlike utopian fiction, which often features an outsider to have the world shown him, dystopias seldom feature an outsider as the protagonist. While such a character would more clearly understand the nature of the society, based on comparison to his society, the knowledge of the outside culture subverts the power of the dystopia. When such outsiders are major characters—such as John the Savage in
Brave New World—their societies are not such as can assist them against the dystopia.
The story usually centers on a protagonist who questions the society, often feeling intuitively that something is terribly wrong, such as
Winston Smith in
Nineteen Eighty-Four, or
V (comics) from Alan Moore's
V for Vendetta. The hero comes to believe that escape or even overturning the social order is possible and decides to act at the risk of life and limb; in some utopias, this may appear as irrational even to him, but he still acts.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's
We" p 62-3, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
A popular archetype of hero in the more modern dystopian literature is the
Vonnegut hero, a hero who is in high-standing within the social system, but sees how wrong everything is, and attempts to either change the system or bring it down, such as
Paul Proteus of Kurt Vonnegut's novel
Player Piano (novel).
The Conflict
In many cases, the hero's conflict brings him to a representative of the dystopia who articulates its principles, from Mustapha Mond in
Brave New World to O'Brien in
1984.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We
" p 57, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander, No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction
, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5There is usually a group of people somewhere in the society who are not under the complete control of the state, and in whom the hero of the novel usually puts his or her hope, although he or she still fails to change anything. In Orwell's
1984 they are the "proles" (Latin for "offspring", from which "
proletariat" is derived), in Huxley's
Brave New World they are the people on the reservation, and in
We (novel) by Zamyatin they are the people outside the walls of the
One State. In
Fahrenheit 451 by
Ray Bradbury, they are the "book people" past the river and outside the city.
Climax and
dénouement
The hero's goal is either escape or destruction of the social order. However, the story is often (but not always)
unresolved. That is, the narrative may deal with individuals in a dystopian society who are unsatisfied, and may rebel, but ultimately fail to change anything. Sometimes they themselves end up changed to conform to the society's norms. This narrative arc to a sense of hopelessness can be found in such classic dystopian works as
Nineteen Eighty-Four. It contrasts with much fiction of the future, in which a hero succeeds in resolving conflicts or otherwise changing things for the better.
The destruction of dystopia is frequently a very different sort of work than one in which it is preserved.
Poul Anderson's short story "Sam Hall" depicts the subversion of a dystopia heavily dependent on surveillance.
Robert A. Heinlein's
If This Goes On liberates the United States from a fundamentalist theocracy, where the underground rebellion is organized by the Freemasons.
Cordwainer Smith's
The Rediscovery of Man series depicts a society recovering from its dystopian period, beginning in "The Dead Lady of Clown Town" with the discovery that its utopia was impossible to maintain. Although these and other societies are typical of dystopias in many ways, they all have not only flaws but
exploitable flaws. The ability of the protagonists to subvert the society also subverts the monolithic power typical of a dystopia. In some cases the hero manages to overthrow the dystopia by motivating the (previously apathetic) populace. In the dystopian video game Half-Life 2 the downtrodden citizens of City 17 rally around the figure of
Gordan Freeman and overthrow their Combine (Half-Life 2) opressors.
If destruction is not possible,
escape may be, if the dystopia does not control the world. In
Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451, the main character succeeds in fleeing and finding tramps who have dedicated themselves to memorizing books to preserve them. In the book
Logan's Run, the main characters make their way to an escape from the otherwise inevitable euthanasia on their 21st birthday (30th in the later film version). Because such dystopias must necessarily control less of the world than the protagonist can reach, and the protagonist can elude capture, this motif also subverts the dystopia's power. In Lois Lowry's
The Giver the main character Jonas is able to run away from 'The Community' and escapes to 'Elsewhere' where people have memories.
Sometimes, this escape leads to the inevitable: The protagonist making a mistake that usually brings about the end of a rebel society, usually living where people think is a story. This concept is brought to life in Scott Westerfeld's novel
Uglies. The main character accidentally brings the government into the secret settlement of the Smoke. She then infiltrates the government to escape, but chooses to join the society for the greater good.
Occasionally, the escape from dystopia is made possible by
time travel and changing history.
Marge Piercy's
Woman on the Edge of Time, though chiefly concerned with the protagonist's time-travel to a future utopia, also has her travel to a dystopia, and in the current time, stymies the efforts that will lead to that future. Poul Anderson's
The Corridors of Time has a protagonist recruited by one future society to fight another, dystopian one; learning that both societies are dystopian (in very different ways), he acts to prevent either one gaining the upper hand in their time-traveling wars, enabling the future emergence of a utopian state. In its time, such a dystopia can be quite as powerful as any other. However, the time travel necessarily moves portions of the story, and usually quite large portions, out of the time of the dystopia, making it less an overwhelming presence in the novel. Finally, the film
La Jetée (and, to a lesser degree, the
La Jetée-inspired
12 Monkeys) involves the protagonist's travel through time both into the future and the (as of 1962) present-day, in the hope of saving his dystopian present.
Resonance
For the reader to engage with it, dystopian fiction typically has one other trait: familiarity. It is not enough to show people living in a society that seems unpleasant. The society must have echoes of today, of the reader's own experience. If the reader can identify the patterns or trends that would lead to the dystopia, it becomes a more involving and effective experience. Authors can use a dystopia effectively to highlight their own concerns about societal trends. For example,
Ayn Rand wrote
Anthem (novella) as a warning against what she saw as the subordination of individual human beings to the state or "the We." Margaret Atwood wrote
The Handmaid's Tale as a warning against the rise of what she saw as religious fundamentalism in the United States and the hypocrisy of 1970s feminism actually aiding the cause of their worst enemies.
Criticism of the concept of dystopias
Just as some modern philosophers, political theorists, and writers have dismissed ideas of perfect societies or "utopias", many have also expressed skepticism regarding the likelihood of a real-life dystopia of the kind described by Orwell and others.
Anthony Burgess however labelled Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four a Cacotopia claiming that 'most visions of the future are cacotopian'. Although there have been many absolutist states in human history,
Gregg Easterbrook has argued that such societies tend to rapidly self-destruct or be destroyed by neighbors. Dictatorships and similar regimes tend to be short-lived, as their policies and actions are almost continually leading to the creation of new potential opponents. For example, the killing or "forced disappearance" of critics and activists only serves to anger their family or friends, who in turn continue the struggle against the regime. However, such a criticism of dystopian literature is dependent upon two key conditions: 1) that the government lacks the ability to firmly quell any uprising, allowing for a substantial resistance to form, and 2) that other countries or states exist which offer a substantially greater standard of living from the dystopia in question. Authors generally address these conditions by establishing a "world government" within the story which does not present the characters with a higher standard of living than the current dystopia, thus quelling the urge to "fight for something better." Furthermore, many dystopian authors apply heavy levels of government propaganda or elements of mind control to their stories, thus eliminating civil unrest. This is evidenced in Orwell's 1984, as well as Huxley's
Brave New World. Should this tactic fail, the government is often capable of full military suppression of the masses, making it a formidable adversary (see V for Vendetta). Were these conditions to actually exist, they could conceivably combine to form a real-life dystopia when coupled with issues such as overpopulation, warfare, starvation, and other social issues. The brutal manner in which many modern-day military regimes maintain their power stands as strong evidence of this point.
Other commentators would say that such a criticism misses the point. For example,
Sam LundwallSam J. Lundwall,
Science Fiction: What It's All About, New York: Ace Books, © 1971 wrote that dystopian fiction "should be read with a pinch of salt," but that it is "as a means of powerful Cultural critic, unsurpassed."
Depictions of dystopias in various media
Dystopias are a common theme in many kinds of fiction. The lists linked below contain extensive lists of works with dystopian themes.
See also
References
A
dystopia (from the Greek δυσ- and τόπος, alternatively,
cacotopia,Cacotopia (κακό, caco = bad) was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 19th century works (, , )
kakotopia or
anti-utopia) is a fictional society that is the antithesis of utopia. It is usually characterized by an
oppression social control, such as an
authoritarianism or
totalitarianism government. In other words, a Dystopia has the opposite of what one would expect in a Utopian society.
Some academic circles distinguish between
anti-utopia and
dystopia. As in George Orwell
Nineteen Eighty-Four,and
Yevgeny Zamyatin's "
We (novel)", a dystopia does not pretend to be good, while an anti-utopia appears to be utopian or was intended to be so (e.g. Aldous Huxley
Brave New World or Andrew Ryan's Rapture in BioShock), but a fatal flaw or other factor has destroyed or twisted the intended utopian world or concept.Random House's Word of the Day clarifies the technical differences between dystopia and anti-utopia.
Origin of the word
The first known use of the term dystopia appeared in a speech before the British Parliament by Greg Webber and John Stuart Mill Exploring Dystopia, last accessed on 19th March 2006, see also in 1868. In that speech, Mill said, "It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable."
Oxford English Dictionary His knowledge of Greek language suggests that he was referring to a bad place, rather than simply the opposite of Utopia. The Greek prefix "dys" ("δυσ-") signifies "ill", "bad" or "abnormal"; Greek "topos" ("τόπος") meaning "place"; and Greek "ou-" ("ου") meaning "not". Thus,
Utopia means "nowhere", and is a pun on "Eutopia" meaning "happy place" - the prefix "eu" means "well," or "good."
Common traits of a dystopian society
The only trait common to all dystopias is that they are negative and undesirable societies, but many commonalities are found across dystopian societies.
In general, dystopias are seen as visions of "dangerous and alienating future societies," often criticizing current trends in culture.City Life - Future Cities: Utopia or Dystopia. (2007). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
January 30,
2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/oscar/article-234546
It is a culture where the condition of life is "extremely bad," as from deprivation, oppression, or terror.dystopia. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved
January 27, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dystopia
Counter-utopia
Many dystopias, found in fictional and artistic works, can be described as a utopian society with at least one fatal flaw.Encyclopedia of Utopian Literature. Mary Ellen Snodgrass. p. xii Whereas a utopian society is founded on perfectionism and fullfilment, a dystopian society’s dreams of improvement are overshadowed by stimulating fears of the “ugly consequences of present-day behavior”.science fiction. (2007). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved February 1,
2007, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-235726
Society
Most dystopias impose severe social restrictions on the characters' lives.
This can take the form of social stratification, where social class is strictly defined and enforced, and
social mobility is non-existent (see
caste). For example,the novel
Brave New World's class system is prenatally designated in terms of Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas, and Epsilons, who lack the very ability to advance.
Another, often related form of restriction lies in the requirement of strict conformity among citizens, with a general assumption that dissent and individuality are bad. In the novel
We (novel) by
Yevgeny Zamyatin, people are permitted to live out of public view for only an hour a day. They are not only referred to by numbers instead of names, but are neither "citizens" nor "people", but "numbers." In the lower castes, in
Brave New World, single embryos are "bokanovskified", so that they produce between eight and ninety-six identical twins, making the citizens as uniform as possible.William Matter, "On
Brave New World" p 95, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Some dystopian works emphasize the pressure to conform in terms of the requirement to not excel. In these works, the society is ruthlessly egalitarian, in which ability and accomplishment, or even competence, are suppressed or stigmatized as forms of inequality, as in Kurt Vonnegut's "Harrison Bergeron". Similarly, in Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451, the dystopia represses the intellectuals with particular force, because most people are willing to accept it, and the resistance to it consists mostly of intellectuals.Jack Zipes, "Mass Degradation of Humanity" p 189, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
In a typical dystopia, there is a total absence of any social group besides the state, as in
We, or such social groups being subdivisions of the state, under government control, for example, the Junior Anti-Sex League in
Nineteen Eighty-Four.
Among social groups, independent religions are notable by their absence. In
Brave New World, the establishment of the state including lopping off the tops of all crosses (as symbols of Christianity) to make them "T"s, (as symbols of Henry Ford's Model T).William Matter, "On
Brave New World" p 94, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 The state may stage, instead, a
personality cult, with quasi-religious rituals about a central figure, usually a head of state or an
oligarchy of some sort, such as Big Brother in
1984, or the Well-Doer of
We. In explicitly theocratic dystopias, such as Margaret Atwood's
The Handmaid's Tale, the religion is the state, and is enforced with the same vigor as any secular dystopia's rule; it does not provide social bonds outside the state.
Even more than religion, family is attacked by dystopian societies. In some societies, it has been completely eradicated, but clearly at great effort, and continuing efforts are deployed to keep it down, as in
Brave New World, where children are reproduced artificially, where the concept of a "mother" or "father" is obscene. In others, the institution of the family exists but great efforts are deployed to keep it in service of the state, as in
1984, where children are organized to spy on their parents. In
We, the escape of a pregnant woman from the United State is a revolt; the hostility of the state to motherhood is a particularly common trait.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's
We" p 70, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
The dystopia often must contain human sexuality in order to prevent its disrupting society. The disruption often springs from the social bonds that sexual activity foments rather than sexual activity itself, as when Ayn Rand's
Anthem (novella) features a hero and heroine whose revolt stems from a wish to form a human connection and express personal love.Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 4-5, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 Therefore, some dystopias are depicted as containing it through encouraging promiscuous sexuality and lack of ideals of
romantic love, so that the characters do not impute importance to the activity.Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 5-6, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 In
Brave New World, Lenina Crowne confesses to having sexual intercourse with only one man and is encouraged by her friend to be more promiscuous, and in
We, "numbers" (people) are allowed sexual intercourse with any other number by registering for access. Alternatively,
antisexualism is also prevalent as a way of social control (the Junior Anti-Sex League in
1984), where the state controls so heavily the lives of its citizens that sexual activity is often an act of rebellion.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
The society frequently isolates the characters from all contact with the natural world. Dystopias are commonly urban,Eric S. Rabkin, "Avatism and Utopia" p 4, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 and generally avoid nature, as when walks are regarded as dangerously
anti-social in Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451.
Political
Dystopian politics are often characterized as one or several types of governments and political systems. These systems include, but are not limited to,
bureaucracy, capitalism, communism,
fascism, chaos,
totalitarianism, dictatorships and other forms of political, social and economical control.Moylan, Tom. “ ‘Look into the Dark’: On Dystopia and the Novum”. Learning from New Worlds. Ed. Patrick Parrinder, Durham: Duke University Press, 2001Kaplan, Carter. “The Advent of Literary Dystopia.” Extrapolation. 40.3 (1999): 200 – 212 These governments often assert great power over the citizens, dramatically depicted in
1984 as the authority to decree that 2+2 did not need to equal 4.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
In
When the Sleeper Wakes, H. G. Wells depicted the governing class as hedonistic and shallow.William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 153 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 George Orwell contrasted this to the world of
Jack London's
The Iron Heel, where the dystopian rulers are brutal and dedicated to the point of fanaticism, which he considered more plausible;William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on
1984" p 147 Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5 this is, indeed, more typical of dystopias in general.
Utopian politics are often considered as idealistic in practice towards the society in which they are dictated and enacted."Utopia." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 11 February 2007. Dystopian politics, however, are considered flawed in some way or have negative connotations amongst the inhabitants of the dystopian “world”. Dystopian politics are portrayed as
Oppression.
Dystopias are often filled with pessimism views of the ruling class or government that is brutal or uncaring ruling with an “iron hand” or “iron fist.” These dystopian government establishments often have protagonists or groups that lead a “
Resistance movement” to enact change within their government.Donawerth, Jane. “Genre Blending and the Critical Dystopia.” Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination. Ed. Raffaella Baccolini, Tom Moylan. New York:Routledge, 2003
Examples of dystopian politics in literary fiction can be read in Parable of the Sower (novel), Nineteen Eighty-Four, and
V for Vendetta. Dystopian politics are portrayed in films such as
The Island (2005 film),
Fahrenheit 451 (1966 film), Brazil (film) and
THX 1138.
Economic
The economic structures of dystopian societies in literature and other media have many variations, as the economy often relates directly to the elements that the writer is depicting as the source of the oppression. However, there are several archetypes that such societies tend to follow.
A commonly occurring theme is that the state is in control of the economy, as shown in such works as
Ayn Rand's
Anthem and Henry Kuttner's short story "The Iron Standard". Some dystopias, such as
1984, feature black markets with goods that are dangerous and difficult to obtain, or the characters may be totally at the mercy of the state-controlled economy. Such systems usually have a lack of efficiency, as seen in stories like
Philip Jose Farmer's
Riders of the Purple Wage, featuring a bloated welfare system in which total freedom from responsibility has encouraged an underclass prone to any form of antisocial behavior.
Kurt Vonnegut's
Player Piano depicts a dystopia in which the centrally controlled economic system has indeed made material abundance plentiful, but deprived the mass of humanity of meaningful labor; virtually all work is menial and unsatisfying, and even most of the small group that achieves education is admitted to the elite.Howard P. Segal, "Vonnegut's
Player Piano: An Ambiguous Technological Dystopia" p 163, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Even in dystopias where the economic system is not the source of the society's badness, as in
Brave New World, the state often controls the economy. In
Brave New World, a character, reacting with horror to the suggestion of not being part of the social body, cites as a reason that everyone works for everyone else.William Matter, "On Brave New World" p 98, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
Other works feature extensive privatization. In this context, big businesses often have far more control over the
populace than any kind of government, as can be seen in the novel
Jennifer Government. This is common in the genre of
cyberpunk, such
The Bladerunner and
Snow Crash, which often features corrupt and all-powerful corporations, often in the form of
megacorps.
Characteristics of dystopian fiction
Dystopia is generally considered a subgenre of
science fiction.
The Back story
Because a
fictional universe has to be constructed, a selectively-told
back story of a war, revolution, uprising, critical overpopulation, or other disaster is often introduced early in the narrative. This results in a shift in emphasis of control, from the good old days to corporations, totalitarian dictatorships or bureaucracies.
Because dystopian literature typically depicts events that take place in the future, it often features technology more advanced than that of contemporary society. Usually, the advanced technology is controlled exclusively by the group in power, while the oppressed population is limited to technology comparable to or more primitive than what we have today.
In order to emphasize the degeneration of society, the standard of living among the lower and middle classes is generally poorer than in contemporary society (in America or a European country, but far superior to any third world country). This is not always the case, however; in
Brave New World and
Equilibrium (2002 film), people enjoy much higher material living standards in exchange for the loss of other qualities in their lives, such as independent thought and emotional depth.
The Hero
Unlike utopian fiction, which often features an outsider to have the world shown him, dystopias seldom feature an outsider as the protagonist. While such a character would more clearly understand the nature of the society, based on comparison to his society, the knowledge of the outside culture subverts the power of the dystopia. When such outsiders are major characters—such as John the Savage in
Brave New World—their societies are not such as can assist them against the dystopia.
The story usually centers on a protagonist who questions the society, often feeling intuitively that something is terribly wrong, such as Winston Smith in
Nineteen Eighty-Four, or
V (comics) from
Alan Moore's
V for Vendetta. The hero comes to believe that escape or even overturning the social order is possible and decides to act at the risk of life and limb; in some utopias, this may appear as irrational even to him, but he still acts.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's
We" p 62-3, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander,
No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5
A popular archetype of hero in the more modern dystopian literature is the
Vonnegut hero, a hero who is in high-standing within the social system, but sees how wrong everything is, and attempts to either change the system or bring it down, such as Paul Proteus of
Kurt Vonnegut's novel
Player Piano (novel).
The Conflict
In many cases, the hero's conflict brings him to a representative of the dystopia who articulates its principles, from Mustapha Mond in
Brave New World to O'Brien in
1984.Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We
" p 57, Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, Joseph D. Olander, No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction
, ISBN 0-8093-1113-5There is usually a group of people somewhere in the society who are not under the complete control of the state, and in whom the hero of the novel usually puts his or her hope, although he or she still fails to change anything. In Orwell's
1984 they are the "proles" (Latin for "offspring", from which "proletariat" is derived), in Huxley's
Brave New World they are the people on the reservation, and in
We (novel) by Zamyatin they are the people outside the walls of the
One State. In
Fahrenheit 451 by
Ray Bradbury, they are the "book people" past the river and outside the city.
Climax and dénouement
The hero's goal is either escape or destruction of the social order. However, the story is often (but not always)
unresolved. That is, the narrative may deal with individuals in a dystopian society who are unsatisfied, and may rebel, but ultimately fail to change anything. Sometimes they themselves end up changed to conform to the society's norms. This narrative arc to a sense of hopelessness can be found in such classic dystopian works as
Nineteen Eighty-Four. It contrasts with much fiction of the future, in which a hero succeeds in resolving conflicts or otherwise changing things for the better.
The destruction of dystopia is frequently a very different sort of work than one in which it is preserved. Poul Anderson's short story "Sam Hall" depicts the subversion of a dystopia heavily dependent on surveillance.
Robert A. Heinlein's If This Goes On liberates the United States from a fundamentalist theocracy, where the underground rebellion is organized by the Freemasons. Cordwainer Smith's
The Rediscovery of Man series depicts a society recovering from its dystopian period, beginning in "The Dead Lady of Clown Town" with the discovery that its utopia was impossible to maintain. Although these and other societies are typical of dystopias in many ways, they all have not only flaws but
exploitable flaws. The ability of the protagonists to subvert the society also subverts the monolithic power typical of a dystopia. In some cases the hero manages to overthrow the dystopia by motivating the (previously apathetic) populace. In the dystopian video game
Half-Life 2 the downtrodden citizens of City 17 rally around the figure of
Gordan Freeman and overthrow their
Combine (Half-Life 2) opressors.
If destruction is not possible,
escape may be, if the dystopia does not control the world. In
Ray Bradbury's
Fahrenheit 451, the main character succeeds in fleeing and finding tramps who have dedicated themselves to memorizing books to preserve them. In the book
Logan's Run, the main characters make their way to an escape from the otherwise inevitable euthanasia on their 21st birthday (30th in the later film version). Because such dystopias must necessarily control less of the world than the protagonist can reach, and the protagonist can elude capture, this motif also subverts the dystopia's power. In Lois Lowry's
The Giver the main character Jonas is able to run away from 'The Community' and escapes to 'Elsewhere' where people have memories.
Sometimes, this escape leads to the inevitable: The protagonist making a mistake that usually brings about the end of a rebel society, usually living where people think is a story. This concept is brought to life in Scott Westerfeld's novel
Uglies. The main character accidentally brings the government into the secret settlement of the Smoke. She then infiltrates the government to escape, but chooses to join the society for the greater good.
Occasionally, the escape from dystopia is made possible by
time travel and changing history.
Marge Piercy's
Woman on the Edge of Time, though chiefly concerned with the protagonist's time-travel to a future utopia, also has her travel to a dystopia, and in the current time, stymies the efforts that will lead to that future. Poul Anderson's
The Corridors of Time has a protagonist recruited by one future society to fight another, dystopian one; learning that both societies are dystopian (in very different ways), he acts to prevent either one gaining the upper hand in their time-traveling wars, enabling the future emergence of a utopian state. In its time, such a dystopia can be quite as powerful as any other. However, the time travel necessarily moves portions of the story, and usually quite large portions, out of the time of the dystopia, making it less an overwhelming presence in the novel. Finally, the film
La Jetée (and, to a lesser degree, the
La Jetée-inspired
12 Monkeys) involves the protagonist's travel through time both into the future and the (as of 1962) present-day, in the hope of saving his dystopian present.
Resonance
For the reader to engage with it, dystopian fiction typically has one other trait: familiarity. It is not enough to show people living in a society that seems unpleasant. The society must have echoes of today, of the reader's own experience. If the reader can identify the patterns or trends that would lead to the dystopia, it becomes a more involving and effective experience. Authors can use a dystopia effectively to highlight their own concerns about societal trends. For example,
Ayn Rand wrote
Anthem (novella) as a warning against what she saw as the subordination of individual human beings to the state or "the We." Margaret Atwood wrote
The Handmaid's Tale as a warning against the rise of what she saw as religious fundamentalism in the United States and the hypocrisy of 1970s feminism actually aiding the cause of their worst enemies.
Criticism of the concept of dystopias
Just as some modern philosophers, political theorists, and writers have dismissed ideas of perfect societies or "utopias", many have also expressed skepticism regarding the likelihood of a real-life dystopia of the kind described by Orwell and others.
Anthony Burgess however labelled Orwell's
Nineteen Eighty-Four a Cacotopia claiming that 'most visions of the future are cacotopian'. Although there have been many absolutist states in human history,
Gregg Easterbrook has argued that such societies tend to rapidly self-destruct or be destroyed by neighbors. Dictatorships and similar regimes tend to be short-lived, as their policies and actions are almost continually leading to the creation of new potential opponents. For example, the killing or "forced disappearance" of critics and activists only serves to anger their family or friends, who in turn continue the struggle against the regime. However, such a criticism of dystopian literature is dependent upon two key conditions: 1) that the government lacks the ability to firmly quell any uprising, allowing for a substantial resistance to form, and 2) that other countries or states exist which offer a substantially greater standard of living from the dystopia in question. Authors generally address these conditions by establishing a "world government" within the story which does not present the characters with a higher standard of living than the current dystopia, thus quelling the urge to "fight for something better." Furthermore, many dystopian authors apply heavy levels of government propaganda or elements of mind control to their stories, thus eliminating civil unrest. This is evidenced in Orwell's 1984, as well as Huxley's
Brave New World. Should this tactic fail, the government is often capable of full military suppression of the masses, making it a formidable adversary (see
V for Vendetta). Were these conditions to actually exist, they could conceivably combine to form a real-life dystopia when coupled with issues such as overpopulation, warfare, starvation, and other social issues. The brutal manner in which many modern-day military regimes maintain their power stands as strong evidence of this point.
Other commentators would say that such a criticism misses the point. For example, Sam LundwallSam J. Lundwall,
Science Fiction: What It's All About, New York: Ace Books, © 1971 wrote that dystopian fiction "should be read with a pinch of salt," but that it is "as a means of powerful
Cultural critic, unsurpassed."
Depictions of dystopias in various media
Dystopias are a common theme in many kinds of fiction. The lists linked below contain extensive lists of works with dystopian themes.
See also
References
